44 prohibiting religious pluralism, liberalism, and secularism. A year later, the government enacted a 2006 “Joint Regulation on Houses of Worship,” which imposed further restrictions on religious minorities, especially Christians, in establishing places of worship. This regulation made it increasingly difficult for religious minorities to build houses of worship in areas where Muslims are the majority. The strong relationship between the government and MUI during this period reinforced the control over religious expression, particularly Christianity. MUI’s influence contributed to the creation of an environment in which Muslim-majority regions, such as Aceh, saw discriminatory practices increase dramatically. At the same time, Muslims in these areas faced fewer obstacles to building mosques or implementing strict Sharia laws. A notable case of religious discrimination in Indonesia was the prosecution of Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (Ahok), the Christian governor of Jakarta. In 2016, Ahok was accused of blasphemy after quoting a verse from the Quran during a campaign speech. The Indonesian Ulama Council (MUI) investigated the case, ultimately leading to Ahok's conviction and two-year prison sentence for “spreading hostility and hatred against Muslims.” His case is a clear example of how religious laws, such as the blasphemy law, have been used to target religious minorities, despite his intent to promote positive messages. Religious discrimination is particularly widespread in regions such as Aceh, West Java, and South Sulawesi, where over 80% of religious discrimination occurs, according to Paul Marshall, Senior Fellow, Center For Religious Freedom. He further observed that: “Despite prominent calls for moderation and inclusion, Indonesian culture has in recent times become increasingly intolerant and ideological. Constitutional democracy has not been matched by intellectual and social flexibility. While more tolerant Islam is still hegemonic, the potent viruses of radicalism and extremism are now endemic.” (June 21, 2023) The root cause lies in the national and local regulations that fail to uphold equality, justice, and human rights for religious minorities. Such policies reduce religious freedom and undermine individuals' basic rights. Klaus Krämer, Managing Director at Sight and Life Foundation, argues that religious freedom is a fundamental human right, and limiting individuals’ ability to express their faith is a violation of these rights. Discrimination against religion in Leviathan Declaring oneself a Christian often leads to oppression, harassment, and
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