54 Moreover, Descartes was profoundly influenced by mathematics, which he saw as the final embodiment of absolute truth. In “Rules for the Direction of the Mind,” Descartes maintained that “geometry and arithmetic are the only subjects that are untarnished by falsity or doubt.”36 He argued that mathematical facts, like the claim that one plus one equals two, are apparent and within the reach of human reason. They offer a degree of certainty not present in other types of knowledge. Therefore, mathematics aided Descartes’ search for indisputable sources of knowledge, reinforcing his skepticism. Descartes’ philosophical investigations were greatly influenced by these two opposing forces—Galileo’s empirical rationalism and the indisputable nature of mathematics. In particular, his technique of doubt and his quest for truth through distinct and unambiguous concepts were particularly noteworthy.37 Methodic Doubt René Descartes, presents a new strategy for the philosophical search for truth, starting with what he terms “methodic doubt”. His seminal work Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) is the most wellknown explanation of this tactic. Descartes formulated a rigorous and deliberate process of systematic skepticism in which he questions the veracity of every belief he holds, especially those open to any plausible doubt. His goal was to remove all potentially false ideas so that only opinions are left beyond the shadow of a doubt.38 Descartes begins by questioning the veracity of sensory perceptions, which he notes are frequently misleading. For example, sensory perception might result in incorrect conclusions when one has intense, real-feeling dreams or encounters optical illusions when objects look curved in water. He concludes that we cannot entirely rely on the senses as sources of specific information if they are capable of tricking us in such circumstances.39 Because of his mistrust regarding the senses, Descartes begins to consider the possibility that an “evil demon” or other robust and malicious entity is controlling his thoughts and tricking him into thinking that the outside world exists when, in fact, it does not. Even if it may appear excessive, this radical uncertainty is not a goal unto itself but rather a means to clear the ground for discovering truths that cannot be doubted. By imagining this extreme scenario, Descartes can question even the most fundamental beliefs—such as the physical world’s existence and the truths of mathematics—until he finds a foundation of absolute certainty.40 40 Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, 15–16. 39 Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, 14. 37 René Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, trans. Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (New York: Dover, 2003), 6. 36 René Descartes, The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), vol. 1, 10. 38 René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, trans. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 13.
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